Nationalism Multiculturalism Nation

Nationalism Multiculturalism Nation Introduction: Nationalism and Multiculturalism†¦.. Ethno cultural pluralism is an unavoidable fact of life. Almost every state is ethnically and/or culturally heterogeneous. Walker Connor famously suggested that there were only seven examples in the world of states that met the nationalist test of one state per nation, one nation per state. Herder was the one coining the word nationalism. He believed in the uniqueness of each culture and the impossibility of comparing different cultures on an absolute scale of value. Modern Nationalism has various traits and variants: civic, ethno-cultural and multicultural. We should understand nationalism, then, as a normative argument that confers moral value on national membership, and on the past and future existence of the nation, and identifies the nation with a particular homeland or part of the globe. Sweeney defines ‘three types of nationalism: state, civic and ethnic; ethnic nationalists who stress culture and descent, civic nationalists who stress culture and territory but not descent, state nationalism which asserts the dominance of a particular ethnicity. Civic nationalism†¦is more tolerant of diversity, and is marked by a recognition of different ethnicities. He implies that state nationalism, although a well-defined category, has been abandoned by modern European states, leaving only a contest between the remaining two nationalisms. At the same time he hints at the possibility of a new third nationalism that goes beyond the merely civic and tolerant, when he introduces the idea of a nationalism that is marked by multiculturalism. So, there may remain three types of nationalism: ethnic, civic, and multicultural. Since nationalism is well entrenched in the state-society structures, it is an undeniable factor in politics where it creates individual loyalty to an ethnic community, constructing the group identity and working on the mobilization for the benefits of the group interests. But, sometimes it affects the society negatively, this happens if the majoritarian nationalism was contested by a competing nationalism, the society may witness bloody aggressive confrontations, such as what used to happen in between the Scottish and the British in the United Kingdom. Thats why modern history witnesses a large-scale loss of life and property all over world in the name of promoting nationalism. On the other hand, so far in most of the literature, multiculturalism is considered as a policy framework rather than a form of nationalism. A way to manage the immigrants population, achieving integration while maintaining identity. Thus, multiculturalism can be viewed as both a policy adopted in diversely cultural societies and as the demographic cultural status in these societies. As a descriptive term it is used to describe societies which have many distinct cultural groups usually as a result of immigration. Multiculturalism as a public policy for managing cultural diversity in a multiethnic society officially stresses mutual respect and tolerance for cultural differences within a countrys borders, emphasizing the unique characteristics of different cultures especially as they interact with one another inside these societies. Immigrants should preserve their cultures with the different cultures, interacting peacefully within one nation. An important remark in this regard is the fact that while all societies today are culturally heterogeneous, not all of them are multicultural. I quote Bhikhu Parekh â€Å"Multiculturalism doesnt simply mean numerical plurality of different cultures, but rather a community which is creating, guaranteeing, encouraging spaces within which different communities are able to grow at their pace. At the same time it means creating a public space in which these communities are able to interact, enrich the existing culture and create a new consensual culture in which they recognize reflections of their own identity.† Ralph Grillodistinguishes between weak multiculturalism in which cultural diversity is recognized in the private sphere while a high degree of assimilation is expected of immigrants and ethnic minorities in the public sphere (law and government, the market, education and employment) and strong multiculturalism marked by institutional recognition of cultural differences in the public sphere including political representation and private one. The emerging trends in nationalism in some countries point to the fact that it is much more than just a set of political principles for nation-building. However, one wonders whether it is proper to label multiculturalism as a form of nationalism when many multicultural states are not able to avoid a backlash from the majority or completely satisfy the minority to the extent that the nationalist vision is truly adopted by the entire nation. That is why to know whether nationalism can be multicultural, it is highly important to study the states response and its policies regarding immigrants and minorities within multicultural societies. Generally, no state is entirely neutral in arbitrating these nationalist visions. Use of coercive means can be expected of any state while deciding to form its nationalist vision and this happens irrespective of the nature the political system. Taylor Strong insists that the nationalist sentiment remains an integral part of the political culture of a state. He perceived the identity as being unattached from the public domain and that is why the state can not be neutral because it is in control of the identity of the nation. For him, this establishes the limits of multiculturalism; once cultural identity is recognized then transformed into a state, the cultures that are internal to this community can not be entitled to benefit from the same right. But still he believes that each culture should preserve its authenticity since the recognition of the equal value of each culture will be permitting the public conversation between the diverse identities. Kernerman identifies that the main issue behind multicultural nationalism is how to achieve a balance between the need to sustain diversity and the necessity to achieve unity with the major question of how are the various manifestations of diversity to be recognized and understood in relation to one another and to the political community? But what is the position of minorities within multicultural societies? And how does the state deal with them? How can we balance between national sentiments and inclusion of immigrants peacefully in a plural society? The paradox of multicultural societies: nationalism Vs. multiculturalism?! Within multicultural societies, people usually disagree about how national unity is best achieved and what it should look like? Some demand equal treatment of all citizens, regardless of their cultural, ethnic, racial, religious or other characteristics since citizenship must be left undifferentiated and symmetrical. Citizenship should be difference blind. In contrast, others demand forms of differentiated citizenship where their differences are not only recognized, but also incorporated into the rules, procedures, and symbols of the political system. That is why many related issues gain attention of policy makers in these societies such as: the scope of minority rights, and the under representation of minorities in electoral politics, the absence of loyalty†¦. But the oppositions remain: equal versus differentiated citizenship, individual rights versus collective rights, impartial versus group-based representation, and so on. Within multicultural societies, nationalism is a site of polarization, driven by mutually exclusive understandings of which units of identity- groups and peoples- should dominate in the collective understanding of the political community. These communities/groups have some conception of the parts and the whole, and so they operate according to their specific logic of identity. This shows how the state has a major role in boosting the sense of loyalty and national identity among the different communities within the society. This role differs among states given different national histories, legal frameworks, and preferences for managing immigration. Contemporary States which adopts an integrative multicultural policy claim that their nationalism is civic rather than ethnic, emphasizing on their equal rights agenda. But inspite of that some signs suggest that minorities may still feel outsiders despite the equal rights and the civic welcome. Parekh points out: one might enjoy all the rights of citizenship and be a formally equal member of the community, and yet feel an outsider who does not belong. It depends upon the public as much as on the Parliament and on political symbols, images, ceremonies, collective self-understanding and views of national identity as much as on equal-rights legislation. No society can remain the same when it admits new members, rather every society constantly redefines and reconstitutes itself in response to the emergence of new generations who bring with them new ideas, forms of self-understanding and modes of behavior. Thats why immigrants are considered a challenge. To solve this, common belonging need to be developed by all states institutions. Common belonging is a two-way process; immigrants can not belong to the society in which they have chosen to settle unless it is prepared to welcome them, and conversely it can not accept them as full members unless they wish to belong, with all what this entails. Common belonging therefore can only be achieved if each party respects the terms of the relationship and discharges its obligations. That is why Inclusiveness is usually formulated in the metaphor of two-way integration. The first of the EU Common Basic Principles of Immigrant Integration Policy states: Integration is a dynamic, two-way process of mutual accommodation by all immigrants and residents of the Member States This means that not just immigrants but also the receiving society has to change, the latter being mandated to create opportunities for the immigrants full economic, social, cultural, and political participation. This is a process that requires each side to stick to its obligations so as to get its rights fully satisfies. On the immigrants side, they may legitimately ask for changes in the practices and institutions of the wider society if the demands are biased or can not be met. Their demands are likely to receive a favorable response only if they have made a commitment to society, valuing their membership of it. These minorities arrive willingly as immigrants to the host country, wishing to belong to this country of settlement and they are expected to be loyal, especially that a society is not a chance collection of people who happen to live together; rather it represents a way of life built up through struggle and sacrifice over several generations. Since their identities and histories are closely bound up with their society, they rightly feel protective about it. Native citizens want to be reassured that immigrants value their membership of it, and respect its way of life. Immigrants need to commit themselves to the host society and accept the expected responsibilities and obligations, but this does not mean that they should break their ties with their country of origin. Such a demand is unfair, impossible to meet, and unnecessary. What can be demanded of immigrants is that they should see their country of settlement as their home, whatever other homes they might also happen to have. It should mean something to them, have an intrinsic value for them, and they should give reasonable evidence of their commitment to it. Such a commitment establishes their good faith, gives them the rights of membership, and entitles them to make different claims on the rest of society as their process of settlement requires. Immigrants express their commitment to society in several ways: They should cherish its integrity and well-being, respect its authority and laws, and in general discharge their obligations as citizens. Immigrants also affirm their commitment to society by participating in its common life, discharging their share of collective responsibility, being productive workers, not abusing the available welfare provisions, and so on. But this does not include interfering in their personal life sphere which does not affect the shared collective life or else it will be unequal treatment. Immigrants need to acquire the cultural competence to help them get acquainted with their new countrys way of life. This involves learning its language, understanding and observing its rules of civility and norms of behavior, and familiarizing themselves with its traditions, history and moral sensibilities. That is why both the state and the society must help them integrate within the fabric of the society with all possible legal and social facilities. From the many types of cultural rights claimed by immigrants are: Exemptions from laws which penalize or burden cultural practices of members of a religious/cultural group whose practices are different from the societys known practices because of the very different meaning it has for the majority culture. Thus, the exemption is justified as recognition of that difference. Also, some related claims seek to have the general law recognize a culturally specific way of establishing certain rights which are established otherwise by the general law. A simple example is the authority granted to religious officials in some states to perform legally binding marriages. Assistance rights to do those things the majority can do unassisted, helping the minorities to overcome obstacles to engaging in common practices. Special provision is sought because of culturally specific disadvantages or because the desired common activity has been designed in such a way as to keep members of non-dominant groups out. Introducing new citizenship and English language requirements are two main policies in this regard. Representation of minorities in states decision-making bodies. Adequate representation of the immigrants should be ensured in the major political institutions to allocate them a fair share of public resources, to secure protection of their interests/rights and to prevent discrimination. The mechanisms for this vary; sometimes it takes the form of straightforward quotas. Symbolic claims to acknowledge the worth, status, and existence of various groups (name of polity, official name of ethnic groups, national holidays, teaching of history, official apologies). The above shows how both the society and the state are needed in the integration process of minorities to meet the needs of both the immigrants and the native citizens in a just fair way that seeks the benefits of the whole society. The states integration policies changed over time till it reached to the multicultural pluralistic form for several reasons including: (a) Demographics: In the past, many governments had the hope/expectation that ethnic minorities would simply disappear, through dying out or assimilation or intermarriage. It is now clear that this is not going to happen due to their high birth rates. The percentage of immigrants in the population is growing steadily in most Western countries, and most commentators agree that even more immigrants will be needed in the future to offset declining birth rates and an ageing population. (b) Rights-Consciousness: the human rights revolution that is premised on the idea of equality of human beings raised the awareness of groups which now have a powerful sense of entitlement to equality as a basic human right, not as a favor or charity. (c) Democracy: In many countries around the world, elites ban political movements of minority groups through different ways. The fear of this sort of repression often keeps minority groups from voicing. Keeping quiet is the safest option for minorities in many countries. However, in consolidated democracies, there is no option but to allow minority groups to mobilize politically and advance their claims in public. It is this loss of fear, combined with rights-consciousness that explains the active nature of ethnic politics in western democracies. The state must make a commitment to immigrants in appropriate ways dealing with the facts that they are new to the society and are liable to misunderstanding and negative stereotyping. Also, they need time to acquire the necessary cultural competence, and in the meantime they lack a clear coherent voice. Being outsiders, they are often resented and also likely to be discriminated against and may suffer from various kinds of disadvantage. This deepens the role of the state to ease their transition, helping them become full legitimate members. Since the nature of the attachments of the groups to the larger political community varies, certain mechanisms are needed to accommodate these variations. This requires some actions from the states side such as: First: Discrimination against immigrants in all areas of life, especially in areas such as employment and housing, should be declared unlawful and subjected to appropriate sanctions since it implies unequal treatment, building up frustration, and can over time generate a profound sense of alienation and marginality. When the state does nothing about it, it sends out the message that it regards them as an inferior class of citizens. Thus the state must address the socio-economic exclusion problems. Secondly: Immigrants suffer from several economic, social, cultural, political and other disadvantages which impede their settlement. This requires a comprehensive public policy covering areas such as: the immigrants need to learn the language in classes that suit their needs and working hours, dealing with residential concentration phenomenon when it transfers from being a comforting way of boosting the immigrants self confidence and safety into an impediment of integration by confining immigrants to their own community. Thirdly: Educational institutions play a crucial role in creating a common sense of belonging. They should prepare their students to live in a multicultural society, cultivating the necessary multicultural skills as tolerance, openness to other ways of life and thought and mutual respect. Citizenship is not entirely about rights, but is a matter of participation in the political community and begins early in life. It concerns the learning of a capacity for action and for responsibility but, essentially, it is about the learning of the self and of the relationship of self and other. It is a learning process. Consequently, it is vital to build up inter-ethnic bonds through associations which bring together different communities in the pursuit of common interests, and develop mutual understanding and trust, fostering a strong sense of civic identity that transcends ethnic differences and creating a larger sense of national identity. Also, Multiculturalism may take the form of revising the educational curriculum to include the history and culture of minority groups; creating advisory boards to consult with the members of minority groups; recognizing the holy days of minority religious groups; teaching police officers, social workers, and health care professionals to be sensitive to cultural differences in their work; developing regulations to ensure that minority groups are not ignored or stereotyped in the media; and so on. These policies may seem discriminatory but they are not because they are intended to remove obstacles to equal fair competition and tackle disadvantages, not to give arbitrary and unfair preference to minorities and immigrants. So when in some cases they receive greater attention, this is only because their disadvantages are greater than normal citizens and are compounded by discrimination. It is an affirmative-action/positive discrimination† program in light of citizens varying legal frameworks. Inspite of all these efforts, sometimes obligatory civic integration (civic integration courses and tests for newcomers†¦) is interpreted as an instance of repressive liberalism especially that non-compliance tends to be sanctioned in terms of financial penalties or denial of permanent legal residence permits. Some view that the novelty of civic integration policy is its obligatory character, which has notably increased over time, and this notional ‘integration policy has even transmitted into a tool of migration control, helping states to restrict especially the entry of unskilled and non-adaptable family immigrants.Some believe that what began as an immigrant integration policy has thus turned into its opposite, a no-immigration policy. But this is not totally true, since basic knowledge of the host societys language, history, and institutions is indispensable to integration. Thus, it is the right of the host country to ensure the success of its integration process through the means fitting its societal framework. But, still some countries tend to be so aggressive in its immigration policies out of its belief that immigrants pull the economy backwards. Such an issue differs among countries according to the ruling political system. But, still the public policies mentioned and the attitudes expected from the minorities are the least acceptable to ensure a peaceful multicultural society which both preserves its identity while respecting diversity. Conclusion: Multicultural governance may be the most feasible theory to achieve a multicultural national citizenship because it operates with the purpose of constructing normalized multicultural citizens within a balanced regime of identity and diversity. Multicultural governance does far more than protect the spaces within which diversity can flourish; it helps to create these spaces. It constructs the identity framework in which cultural freedoms can be asserted and deployed. A multicultural state will be providing the categories within which groups and citizens negotiate their behavior and interact together so that the citizen can belongs to an ethnic group and to the nation simultaneously. As Charles Taylor believes, personal identity is formed in a symbiotic relation with a collective identity and is nourished by the culture that the group shares. This emphasizes the importance of having a multicultural spirit within the society, believing that with the appropriate policies adopted by the states institutions to facilitate the integration of minorities and with a high degree of loyalty from the minorities side, an authentic multicultural nationalism can flourish where both the national identity and diversity are being respected and promoted. Such visions draw the best mechanism that can achieve a real multicultural national society, proving that a balance can happen between both nationalism and multiculturalism. Appendix: Generally, we can identify four types of minorities which are disadvantaged and need to be well integrated: Groups have their cultural roots within their country of citizenship, but have a key defining characteristic (e.g. gay/lesbians; disabled people). groups are autochthonous minorities (i.e. national minorities or aboriginal peoples) (e.g. the Quà ©bà ©cois; the Basques) groups have cultural or ethnic roots not only outside the territory of the state in which they have citizenship but also outside the Western world (e.g. Black-British; Chinese-Americans) groups are mainly religious minorities originating outside the Western world (e.g. French Muslims; British Sikhs) In this research I was focusing mainly upon the minorities of the last 2 kinds who usually arrives as immigrants to the host country. Bibliography: Birnbaum, Pierre and Strong, Tracy, from multiculturalism to nationalism, Political Theory, Vol. 24, No. 1, 1996. Bourne , jenny, In difference of multiculturalism, Institute of race relations IRR BRIEFING PAPER NO.2http://www.irr.org.uk/pdf/IRR_Briefing_No.2.pdf Chirot, Daniel Herders Multicultural Theory of Nationalism and Its Consequences, East European Politics and Societies, volume 10 ,1995. Delanty, Gerald, Two Conceptions of Cultural Citizenship: A Review of Recent Literature on Culture and Citizenship, The Global Review of Ethno-politics, Vol. 1, no. 3, March 2002. Economic and social research council ESRC, Program on devolution and constitutional change, Towards a multicultural nationalism? Anglophobia and Islamophobia in Scotland, Devolution Briefing No.24, March 2005. Gallis, Paul (ed.), Muslims in Europe: Integration Policies in Selected Countries, CRS congressional research service, November 18, 2005. available online at : http://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33166.pdf Halstead, schooling and cultural maintenance for religious minorities in the liberal state in Kevin McDonough (Editor), Walter Feinberg, (Editor), citizenship and education in liberal societies: teaching for Cosmopolitan Values and Collective Identities, 2003, Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: January 2005. Harris, John, a paradox of multicultural societies, Journal of Philosophy of Education, Vol. 16, No. 2, 1982. Hussain, Asifa and Miller, William, Multicultural Nationalism :Islamophobia, Anglophobia, and Devolution. Available online at: http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/oso/public/content/politicalscience/9780199280711/acprof-0199280711-chapter-1.html. Joppke, Christian Beyond national models: Civic integration policies for immigrants in Western Europe, West European Politics, Vol.30, No.1, http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~content=t713395181 Keating, Michael (Editor), McGarry, John, Minority Nationalism and the Changing International Order, 2001, Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: November 2003.AVAILBALE at: http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/oso/private/content/politicalscience/9780199242146/p013.html#acprof-0199242143 Kernerman, Gerald, Multicultural Nationalism: Civilizing Difference, Constituting Community, Law and society Series, (Toronto, UBC Press, 2005) Kymlicka, Will, Multiculturalism and Minority Rights: West and East, journal on ethno politics and minority issues in Europe, Issue 4, 2002, http://www.ecmi.de/jemie/download/Focus4-2002_Kymlicka.pdf Levy, Jacob T. The Multiculturalism of Fear. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. Oxford Scholarship Online. Oxford University Press. 27 March 2008 Moore, Margaret ethics of nationalism, (oxford: oxford university press, 2001), Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: November 2003. Available online at: http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/oso/private/content/politicalscience/9780198297468/p011.html#acprof-0198297467. Parekh, Bhikhu, â€Å"A commitment to cultural pluralism, available at: http://kvc.minbuza.nl/United Kingdom/archive/commentary/parekh_sum.html, Parekh, Bhikhu Unity and diversity in Multicultural societies, International Institute for Labor Studies, published paper, Geneva, 2005. http://www.ilo.org/public/english/bureau/inst/download/1parekh.pdf, Vertovec, Steven â€Å"Trans national challenges to the New multiculturalism†, university of Oxford .paper presented to the ASA conference held at the university of Sussex, 30 march -2nd April 2001.

Tyler Cowen’s Creative Destruction: How Globalization is Changing the World

Trade and commerce carry a crucial role in creating and changing cultures of races and tribes. In Tyler Cowen’s book entitled ‘Creative Destruction: How Globalization is Changing the World’, trade is depicted as a living entity that builds, grows, and transforms, depending on the elements that influence trade. Cultural homogenization and heterogenization have the ability to work together, with some traits or phenotypes of the two cultures becoming more alike, while others become more different over the process. However, Cowen has failed to realize that, given a specific environment, trade does not always lead to wealth or cultural diversity within a certain environment. With trade and commerce influencing the formation, transformation, and reformation of cultural diversity, there are significant roles that the individuals living in the society must carry. Tyler Cowen’s Creative Destruction: How Globalization is Changing the World: On the Issue of Choice and Positive Liberty in the Cultural Marketing Industry Trade is one of the oldest trends, which has continued to change the world and the course of human history. It changed culture, language, the state of art and heritage, and thanks to trade, the alphabet of the Phoenicians and the numerals of the Arabs were both preserved even to this very day. Businesses and immigrants carry a crucial role in creating and changing cultures of races and tribes. Reflecting the Darwinian Theory, which says that individuals or groups of individuals compete so as â€Å"to achieve their goals of fitness and reproduction† (Saint-Paul, 2002, p. ), internationalization is being born. This pertains to â€Å"the geographic spread of economic activities across national boundaries† (Gereffi & Memedovic, 2003, p. 2). The world economy started to form and be active; with trade and business spreading across boundaries†¦ forming cultures that affect the way people live. In Tyler Cowen’s book entitled ‘Creative Destruction: How Globalization is Changing the World’, it is stated that â€Å"Trade†¦ shapes our sense of cultural self† (Cowen, 2002, p. ). This book proves how trade invasion both creates and destroys culture—that while one culture is being destroyed, another is being created. Trade here is being depicted as a living entity that builds, grows, and transforms, depending on the elements that influence trade itself. Globalization is a creative destruction because it multiplies diversity within a specific individual or race, as it decreases diversity outside the specific individual or race. This paper revolves around Cowen’s book and his manifestation that creative products—those that pertain to music, literature, cinema, cuisine, or the visual arts—are at allies with trade and commerce. Nevertheless, we shall prove how Cowen (2002) failed to realize that, given a specific environment of a town or country, trade do not always lead to wealth and diversity within a certain environment. Groups and individuals carry the most significant roles on whether trade would transform them†¦ or if they would transform trade. Main Body The version of Cowen According to Cowen (2002), â€Å"To varying degrees, Western cultures draw their philosophical heritage from the Greeks, their religions from the Middle East, their scientific base from the Chinese and Islamic worlds, and their core populations and languages from Europe† (p. 6). He says that internationalization intensified starting in the 19th century, when the means of travel developed with the inventing of cars, railroads, and steamships, while promoting cultural diversity and creativity (p. 6). In contrast, the era of cultural decline during the Dark Ages (422 A. D. – 1100 A. D. ) also reflected â€Å"a radical shrinking of trade frontiers† (p. 6). Through literature, music, art and cinema, and even sports, the tide of cross-cultural exchange of trade has influenced the exchange of creative production as well. However, as Cowen (2002) stated, â€Å"Just as trade typically makes countries richer in material terms, it tends to make them culturally richer as well† (p. 13). Cross-cultural trade and exchange have made way for greater opportunities in wealth, technology, and what he called as ‘cultural blossomings’ (p. 3). As diversity across societies forms or transforms (with the help of trade), diversity inside and outside the society moves in opposite directions: When one society trades a new artwork to another society, diversity within society goes up, but diversity across the two societies goes down. The question is not about more less diversity per se, but rather what kind of diversity globalization will bring. Cross-cultural exchange tends to favor diversity within society, but to disfavor diversity across societies. (p. 15) In the broader prospect of the topic of globalization, Cowen’s version fit within the paradigm that says that, diversity over time is greatly influenced by trade and commerce between societies. Being the best manifestations of culture, creative products influence internationalization that, sequentially, influences the formation of these creative products. The paradigm of Cowen Cowen’s paradigm in his book ‘Creative Destruction: How Globalization is Changing the World’ creates the thought that cultural diversity is being formed, transformed, or reformed out of a society’s trade and commerce industry. Through cross-cultural trade, there is an exchange of creative production through the intention of gaining wealth, technology, knowledge, and what Cowen (2002) defined as ‘cultural blossomings’. This, however, is just another way of reusing or reinterpreting Darwin’s theory of natural selection, which states that â€Å"the proportion of organisms in a species with characteristics that are adaptive to a given environment increases with each generation† (American Heritage Science Dictionary, 2002). It is like saying that, in a world where cross-cultural interaction takes place frequently—especially under internationalization—the favorable characteristics of a cultural society are transmitted for adaptation to another trading society; while the unfavorable ones of that cultural society tend to diminish against adaptation within the spectrum of the two societies. What Darwin calls the ‘phenotype’ (i. e. observable characteristics of organisms) reaches the cultural society though trade and commerce, and according to Cowen (2002), this is being transmitted in the form of creative production by means of music, literature, cinema, cuisine, or visual arts. Not only wealth and goods are shared but also the ideas, the art forms, and the basic culture that is most prevalent within the society. As they reach places that are beyond the border of that society, people tend to choose and adapt the favorable phenotypes, rather than the unfavorable ones. It is like saying that cultural human evolution revolves around the sharing and reproduction of creative, cultural phenotypes; and those that are being categorized as ‘favorable’ increase in frequency and power, as when compared over to the ‘unfavorable’ ones. As a result, Coca-Cola, McDonald’s, and Mickey Mouse became as global as the number of countries that the government of the United States has reached and occupied. International capitalism serves as both the cause and effect of cultural diversity. The gap filled by Cowen â€Å"The question is not about more less diversity per se, but rather what kind of diversity globalization will bring. –Cowen, 2002, p. 15 Trade and commerce influence the formation, transformation, and reformation of cultural diversity. Reinterpreting diversity-over-time as a value, Cowen (2002) has come up with the term operative diversity or â€Å"how effectively we can enjoy the diversity of the world† (p. 16 ). Stating how the world was much diverse during the 15th century than how it is today, he reinterpreted human evolution by stating the following lines: â€Å"Markets have subsequently disseminated the diverse products of the world very effectively, even when those same cross-cultural contacts have damaged indigenous creative environments† (Cowen, 2002, p. 6). Cultural homogenization and heterogenization, according to Cowen (2002), have the tendency to go together, with some phenotypes of the two cultures becoming more alike, while others becoming more different over the process. This is the gap filled up by Cowen (2002) when he wrote ‘Creative Destruction’. Although there is some truth over the natural selection theory, it does not clearly state how the organisms (or societies) react to one another, especially regarding culture. It just summarizes that the strong, favorable phenotypes survive, while the weak and unfavorable ones tend to diminish. Unlike the theory of the natural selection, which interprets adaptations and human evolution by defining traits (e. g. , cultural, environmental) as strong or weak, or as favorable or unfavorable, Cowen’s theory clearly points out that, in a certain cultural environment, there is a specific kind or manner of diversity, which sprouts out of the interaction. Cultural diversity does not just strengthen or weaken, they do not just live or die, but have the tendency to form, transform, or be reformed through homogenization and heterogenization of traits and cultures. It is not merely ‘destruction’ but a creative destruction because of the many ways that may bud or develop out of a specific cultural interaction. The gap left by Cowen Cowen’s book states that, as trade and commerce intensify, internationalization and globalization also intensify†¦ and, with this, the promotion of cultural diversity and creativity. Cultural decline happens with the weakening of trade and commerce, and this brings lesser diversity to culture and creative production. Trade and commerce should bring more wealth, technology, and cultural blossomings, in the same way that all these bring more numbers to trade and commerce. It is a two-way process that is resilient and ongoing†¦ changing culture and diversity inside and outside the society. However, it would be utterly wrong to explain cultural evolution in such a plain, simple picture between trade and culture inside and outside the society. Given a specific environment, Cowen (2002) has failed to recognize that trade does not always lead to the intensification of internationalization or globalization. It does not always bring more wealth, or technology, or cultural blossomings; and a fall in trade does not always mean a fall in terms of diversity. One good proof is the Asian crisis that transpired in the year 1997. In a changing era of globalization, East Asia received much criticism when what was called the ‘engine of the world’ financially collapsed because of some unregulated flows of the global capital. In the same way that Mexico experienced financial collapse in 1994, East Asia’s version was much worse, since it reached many countries like Thailand, Indonesia, Philippines, Singapore, Hong Kong, and Korea. This is an economic collapse, and the crisis was brought about through the globalization of the financial markets, where local banks and finance companies subjected more on foreign loans that, by 1996, were much loaded with non-performing loans. This gives the conclusion that, despite successful trade and commerce industry, an exchange of goods does not always lead to the intensification of internationalization or globalization. It does not always bring more wealth, and although it can intensify technology, diversity, and cultural blossomings, it can degrade wealth at the same time. The lens used by Cowen Cowen’s paradigm sets the thought that cultural diversity is being formed, transformed, and reformed out of a society’s trade and commerce industry. His lens is better than that used by the Darwinians, which is a way of saying that the strong and favorable characteristics of a cultural society are transmitted for adaptation to another trading society; while the weak and unfavorable characteristics of that cultural society tend to diminish against adaptation within the spectrum of the other society. Cowen’s lens appear to be more concrete and detailed—like a microscopic device that takes into account how individuals react, what are the changes, or which characteristics are maintained. More flexibly, he takes into account the true complexity of the environment—with individuals or societies that have the ability to choose which ones are to be accepted or left behind. It shapes the cultural self by making a decision on which kind of diversity globalization should be allowed to bring. Thus, cultural diversity do not just strengthen or weaken but forms, transforms, and reforms itself. Homogenization and heterogenization can blend together, and the type of diversity that springs forth out of the interaction is influenced by the members of the trading societies. Cowen’s lens are, in a way, similar to the lens used by Harvard philosopher Robert Nozick, when he stated in his book entitled Anarchy, State, and Utopia that the â€Å"market society offered a cultural utopia based on freedom of choice† (Cowen, 2002, p. 2). He portrayed in his paper about a ‘libertarian’ world, where individuals have the freedom to choose their own lifestyles, mores, and their culture (p. 2). Cowen has criticized this, as he raised the question on â€Å"how much choice actually is available in the market† (p. 2). True, there are not many choices left for a society that has done almost everything in coming up with the best type of environment (not precisely cultural environment) that would be best for the society. Yet for those that have much more left to do, there are a thousand choices that can be used in improving the state of their environment. The market, still, has its own liberty. Conclusion â€Å"[T]he market does in fact expand our positive liberties and increase the menu of choice. If not, the freedom to engage in marketplace exchange will stand in conflict with other notions of freedom†¦ More generally, the question at stake is what kinds of freedom are possible in the modern world. † –Cowen, 2002, p. 4 The lens used by Cowen (2002) is far better than that used by the Darwinians. Despite the fact that Cowen (2002) supports the Darwinian Theory that everything utterly revolves around ‘natural selection’ in the society, he supports the idea that there are meaningful ways on how trading societies influence one another’s culture and traits. His views, however, has failed to acknowledge the following statements: first, that trade and commerce do not always lead to wealth, technology, or cultural blossomings; second, that trade and commerce do not always lead to an intensified state of internationalization; third, that trade and commerce do not always lead to an intensified state of globalization; fourth, that a failing finance, due to failure in trade and commerce, does not precisely mean failure in terms of diversity or creative production; fifth and final, that liberty is exceedingly available, especially to societies that have much more to improve. Cowen’s lens is more focused on the surrounding environment of the West. Despite being more concrete and detailed, it has failed to take into account the meaningful ways that people can approach the state of liberty, which people can have, especially concerning trade, commerce, and even culture. Cowen’s book has given enough evidence to prove that trade and culture undergoes a two-way process that is resilient and ongoing, as it changes the environment inside and outside the society. It is not a simple interaction, however, and we can say that failure in terms of trade and commerce could be the effect of a failure in terms of wise and proper execution of choice and liberty. As citizens carry the most significant roles in a society, the choice on whether culture will be formed, transformed, or reformed lies on their bare hands.

Judaism, Christianity, Islam Essay

The three oldest religions are Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Judaism is a one of the oldest religions known to people. Judaism is a monotheistic religion, which means that Jewish people pray to only one g-d. There weren’t too many religions like this when it originated which made Judaism very unique at the time. Moses was one of the most famous Jewish prophets. He led the Jewish people out of slavery, led them to Mount Sinai and received the Ten Commandments, a set of rules that people even today still follow. The Jews have many customs and traditions. Among them are circumcision, bar or bat mitzvah, special rituals and prayers to be said during a wedding and during death and mourning. Circumcision is the removal of the foreskin of the penis. The rite of circumcision is one of the most ancient practices of Judaism. Circumcision is done because of a Commandment by God to Abraham as it is written in the Torah and as a sign of commitment of Jewish people. The Torah is Judaism’s most important text. It contains the Five Books of Moses and is the source of the Ten Commandments. Bar or Bat mitzvah’ is when a child reaches the age of maturity, 13 for boys, and 12 for girls, and is ready to become an adult their community. At that age, a child becomes responsible for his actions and is obligated to observe the commandments. This ceremony is incorporated into an ordinary Sabbath service. During a Jewish wedding, the bride and groom get married under a special cloth called a â€Å"chuppah† or special canopy. Another tradition that is followed during a Jewish wedding is the breaking of a small glass at the end of the ceremony. This is to symbolize that even though this is a happy event, people should still remember the hardships that were faced before the Jewish people got to that place in time. During death and mourning, a Jewish family will sit â€Å"shiva† which is sitting in mourning for seven days after the death of a loved one. Some other customs are wearing a kippah on the head in a synagogue or wearing a tallit, a prayer shawl, while praying. Christianity is one of the world’s major monotheistic religions. Christianity takes the beliefs and practices very seriously. The central figure in Christianity is Jesus Christ. As the Son of God, he came to earth to teach about love and fellowship. He represents the person that all Christians must strive to be. Christians believe that he is the only one that ever lived on earth that can be called perfect from all worldly sins. The important thing to understand was that Jesus was God. He was here on earth to teach of God’s plan for all of humanity and to save the people of the world from their transgressions. In Christianity, God is almighty and rules over all of heaven and earth. He is the one that created the earth and one day will cast judgment over the entire earth. Christians understand that through Jesus Christ, people can be saved from this judgment. By believing that Jesus Christ is Lord and Savior, the Spirit of God is exists in all believers, and that God is almighty in power. A person can be saved from this judgment. Christians believe in heaven and hell. Heaven is the place where believers would enjoy the presence of God and other believers and freedom from suffering and sin. Hell is where unbelievers and sinners are punished for their sins committed during the course of their lives. Baptism is one of the most important sacraments in Christianity. It involves application of or immersion in water, a blessing, and the pronouncement, â€Å"I baptize you in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. † Most Christian churches baptize both infants and adults, but some believe that baptism is only rightly performed on adults. Views of baptism vary, but common views of the rituals include: it grants or symbolizes salvation, commemorates Christ’s death and resurrection, fulfills the command of Jesus to baptize, cleanses away sins, confers grace, and publicly expresses one’s faith. Christianity also teaches about the importance of attending Holy Mass. It’s important for Christians to keep their Sabbath according to the commandments. It is observed on the seventh day which usually falls on a Sunday or Saturday and is considered a weekly day of rest from work. The day is spent fasting and praying and attending Holy Mass. At Mass, followers are taught about the teachings in the bible through scripture readings. The celebration of Mass would conclude with the sharing of communion. Communion represents the Passover that Jesus celebrated with his twelve disciples on the eve of His death. It is an integral part of Christian worship. It causes Christians to remember the Lord’s death and resurrection and to look for His glorious return in the future. Holidays, feasts and fasts are a significant part of Christian religious practice. The feast days celebrate joyous and sorrowful historical events such as the birth, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ, while the fast days provide a special opportunity to focus on self-reflection, self-discipline and repentance. Christmas is the celebration of the birth of Jesus Christ. Lent starts on Ash Wednesday and it runs for forty days. During the forty days Christians fast and pray which represents the forty days Jesus spent in the wilderness fasting and praying. Lent is followed by Easter which represents the return of Jesus from the wilderness. Easter starts from Palm Sunday. His death and resurrection is observed during Easter. Special Services are kept in the church during this week and ends with Easter Sunday, the day that Jesus rose from the dead. Islam is a simple and practical religion. It has established, clear, and easily understandable beliefs and laws that any follower or student of the religion can easily understand. Islam affirms belief in a decent, civilized society. Islam also does not demand impossible goodness of its followers, but it recognizes that all human beings make mistakes and sin. No one is exempt. Islam preaches peace, mercy, justice, tolerance, equality, love, truth, forgiveness, patience, morality, sincerity and righteousness. Islam is the religion that preaches the Oneness of God, the Oneness of mankind and the Oneness of the Message. Muslims believe that there is only one supreme God, Allah. In Islam to believe in Allah is not only to believe in Allah’s existence but also to believe in all Allah’s attributions, to worship Allah alone, and to obey all Allah’s commands. Islam teaches about the five pillars: Shahada, Salah, Seyam, Zakat and Hajj. Shahada is the verbal commitment and pledge that there is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is the messenger of Allah. It is the duty of every Muslim, male and female, after reaching the age of puberty, to perform five Salats or prayers at specific times during the day and night. These five specific times are: – Dawn, Noon, Afternoon, Sunset, and Night. A ritual called Wudu, which is the cleaning several parts of the body with water, is a prerequisite to Salat. Fasting during the month of Ramadan, the ninth month of the lunar calendar, is from sun up to sun down only and is an obligation on every healthy adult Muslim, male or female. Fasting is total abstinence from eating, drinking, smoking, gum chewing, intimate relations, and taking anything into the body. If a person is ill and needs to take medication, he/she cannot fast. Fasting is also a time to discipline one’s self from bad behaviors, such as; arguing and saying mean things. Those who are ill or unable to fast for health or reasons of age are exempt from fasting. However, they should feel the poor one meal for every day they miss of fasting. Women who are pregnant, menstruating, or nursing, or any who are traveling, are also exempt from fasting. However, when their situation changes, they make up the days of fasting or feed the poor one meal for each day of fasting they missed. Zakat is an annual obligatory charity on every Muslim, male or female, who possesses over the last year money or property that exceeds their minimum needs. The requirement is 2. 5% of one’s excess wealth. The performance of the pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia is required once in a lifetime of every Muslim, if financially able, as well as physically able. Hajj begins every year during the month of Dul Hejja. Dul Hejja is the 12th month of the Islamic calendar year. The Hajj is a spiritual journey where a Muslim forgets all worldly things and devotes his/her attention and time to Allah alone. Islam looks at the woman as an equal, mature and capable partner of a man, without whom a family cannot exist and teaches that men and women are all the creation of Allah, existing on a level of equal worth and value. In some societies women are treated according to ancestral customs and tribal tradition, but in Islam they are treated with full respect and honor. Islam preserves women’s honor and dignity, and requires that she must be treated with respect and honor. Her femininity should not be exploited in any way, rather she is to be regarded and treated as human individual whose sexuality does not enter into her relationship with any person other than her husband. In Islam marriage cannot take place unless the female freely agrees to it and a dowry is given to her. Islam puts priorities for the husbands and wives. The responsibility for providing for the family is on the husband, while the responsibility to care for the house and raising the children is on the wife. These are the main priorities, but cooperation between the husband and the wife is required and highly recommended.

World War Is Great Effect on Austalia and Singapore Essay

The after effects of World War 1 on Australia were quite tremendous. Although many made it back, hundreds of thousands died fighting, and left a huge gap in the Australian population, which weren’t exceptionally populated to begin with. Those who came back from the war were unemployed, and majority severely wounded. They also brought back with them the Spanish Flu, brought from Europe during their time fighting, and spread through Australia, killing over 10,000 Australians. As there was much unemployment, the government gave them farming land, but majority were unsuccessful. The government had to provide pensions for those who were severely wounded or ill and could not work, and also compensations for those who lost family members or†¦show more content†¦Japan had already controlled Malaysia on 8th December 1941. It started to bomb a few Singaporean sites, including telephone connections with generals, and began their official invasions of Singapore on the 25th of December. The problem that led to the downfall of the Allies was that their weapons and army were designed to attack south. So they waited on a naval attack from the Japanese. This was a strategic move for Japan in terms of attack as well as deceiving their enemy and attacked from the north through Malaysia rout. When the Japanese landed on Singapore in the Sarimbun Beach at night and advanced their troops rapidly through the jungle. More Japanese troops, artillery and aircraft began pouring in for support. Singapore began to experience heavy bombing by Japanese aircrafts, as it targeted military and naval base as well as airfields, drawing closer and closer to Singapore city. By the 15th of February, the Japanese army had broken through Singapore’s last line of defence, and they threatened to cause more damage if the Allies doesn’t surrender. Singapore high officials held a meeting discussing whether to counter attack or surrender. They decided to surrender. By surrendering, th ey had to agree to surrender all military forces, including army, navy and air power and were to hand over their weapons. After the surrender of Singapore, Japanese began to colonise. Japan renamed the city to Syonan-to in their honour of their victory. They